Tramping Skills: River crossing

River crossing skills examined...

In Colonial times drowning was referred to as the "New Zealand disease" because so many people died trying to cross bodies of water. I once visited the cemetery in Hanmer Springs and there are literally dozens of people there who died in the local water courses. It is hardly surprising given the number of beaches, lakes, rivers, creeks and streams in this country.

In colonial times there were few bridges or river ferries and fords tended to be more dangerous as they hardly understood safety. 

Contemplating a crossing of the Otira River, Arthur's Pass NP

Drowning remains a major cause of fatalities among kiwi trampers to this day. Because of our profusion of rivers in New Zealand you need to be able to assess a body of water and have the skill and experience to pick safe crossing points.

Here are some tips I have acquired over the years about what to look for when you approach a water body and how to decide how, when and where you will cross.

To cross or not to cross?

The most fundamental question you need to ask yourself is....

 Do I need to cross this river?

Hawdon River...how and where will I cross...?

This seems obvious yet I'm sure some people have never stopped and thought about why they are crossing a particular body of water. As soon as you enter a river you can potentially find yourself in trouble so asking yourself why you need to cross is important.

Sun shining on a river can hide how deep it really is...

If there is any possible way to avoid entering a river, stream or lake you should take advantage of it. Is there a bridge nearby you could use, can you reach your location without crossing water or is there an alternate route that avoids water crossings?

On the Milford Track...yes please use that bridge to cross the stream...

These are all questions you should ask yourself.

Nice...shallow, slow moving water...can be crossed easily at this point!

Firm, flat shingle river beds provide for a good crossing point...

Every river crossing is dangerous: regardless of the amount of aids, training and experience you have. Even veterans with 40+ years of experience have been swept away by rivers so never assume you are immune.

Take every crossing seriously.

Can be crossed with care as part of a group (...but why...there is a bridge 100 meters up-river!)

Crossing these rivers aka swirling vertices of death...don't even think about it!

As the Mountain Safety Council (MSC) say...

"If there are any doubts about the safety of crossing, don't cross - it isn't worth the risk"

Approaching a river; a mindful process..

Develop your own process for assessing rivers, streams and creeks when you are out tramping. If you have a mindful process you are much more likely to use it every time you arrive at a river or stream.

Is it safe to cross here or should I look for another option?

Always stop and assess any body of water- never jump in without stopping and formulating a plan to get you safely to the other side. I will often stop for a drink or snack at a river crossing point. This means I am rested before attempting to cross and gives me time to really investigate the river I'm thinking of crossing.

Brew up before crossing a river in Victoria Forest Park

Never attempt to cross a river that is swollen, discolored, where you cannot see the river bed or if there are debris floating in it. These are all signs of a flooding, dangerous river.

A discolored Alfred River...danger Will Robinson!

If you approach a river and hear a low rumbling do not cross. the water is moving rocks along the stream bed, these can easily injure you.

Look for a safe place to both enter and exit the river. Avoid steep or undercut banks, debris piles and areas with dense vegetation as these will be difficult places to enter and exit.  Also be aware that the river may be deeper on the opposite bank so be prepared to retreat if there is any danger.

Not a safe exit point, too much debris to negotiate

Be careful of marked fords- rivers are changeable beasts and what was once easy going may now be a certain death trap. An example is the ford over the mouth of the Travers River in Nelson Lakes NP. There is a marked ford, yet if you follow the marked path you are led straight into a swift waist deep channel. If you go 30 meters downriver it is only knee deep right across the river.

The Travers River ford- deep channel near the far bank!

It is always worth the effort to explore alternate crossing point before you commit.

The MSC have more information about assessing possible river crossing points on their website.

Cross as a group or solo?

You can cross a river by yourself or as a group. The MSC do not recommend crossing a river solo. The reason for this is that a single person does not have as much stability as two or more. A group is heavier and has more points of contact with the bed of the water course. Even having two people linked together makes your chances of successfully crossing much higher.

Obviously there will be times when you must cross rivers singly but you should do everything in your power to avoid doing so.

Group crossing

If you are part of a group you should cross using the mutual support method.

Using the mutual support method for crossing a river

Follow these rules when using the mutual support method:

• Choose a crossing leader before entering the water. They control the crossing- all group members listen closely for instructions.
• Choosing a crossing point is a group decision- discuss your options.
• Strongest person to be at upstream end of group
• Upstream person slightly forward of next, you want a shallow incline to the group
• Second strongest person at downstream end of group
• Hands grasp neighbors pack-straps/clothing around their body
• Group should be parallel to the flow of water, this will minimize the force of the water
• Maximum river depth no more than thigh deep. The only exception would be in very slow moving waist deep water. If it is deeper than the thigh DO NOT CROSS regardless of the group size!
• Take small shuffling steps all the way across the water.
• The group moves as one unit- all the way across.
• Move diagonally downstream with the flow of the water. Don't fight the river flow- conserve energy!
• Pack straps loosened and sternum strap undone
• Can be used by 2-5 people, if more than 5 then you need a second group
• Suitable for even and uneven river beds, your neighbors stop you falling into too deep of a hole.
• Always wear footwear as riverbeds can be slippery.

Nicely done- group crossing a river using the mutual support method

Crossing a river solo

If you must cross solo use the solo supported method. Grab a pole at least your height, use this as an extra leg to give you more stability. Shuffle your way across the river maintaining two points of contact at all times.

River crossings: solo supported using a pole...

...and crossing a river solo in deeper water!

You should really angle this pole across your body with the upstream end planted on the bed of the river.

Solo supported method, pole anchored on river-bed

Walking poles can be used in ankle to knee deep water but are not long enough for anything over knee deep water. I have seen several people fall into rivers because they insisted on using a trekking pole rather than a stout stick. 

River crossing using trekking poles for support

If you have the option of crossing as a group or solo ALWAYS cross using the group method.

General river crossing technique:

Take care to remember these points when crossing any body of water:

Having decided on your crossing point make sure all gear is secured inside your pack. Loose items on the exterior can be lost or drag you under once waterlogged. It is bad tramping practice to have a plethora of gear on the outside of your pack even if not crossing a river.

NO! Stow that shite inside the pack....

New Zealand's steep terrain and large watersheds mean that rivers can rise and fall quickly. Watch for the first signs of impending floods: discolored water and floating debris. Do not camp too close to riverbanks if there is rain forecast for the watershed you are in, floods of up to 10 meters have been recorded before.

The large and steep catchment area for the Anti Crow River in Arthur's Pass NP

Equally, if a river is too high to cross stop, find shelter and wait. It is highly likely that the water level will be much lower after a couple of hours of fine weather. Comprise a striking haiku as you wait...

...music to my ears
is the rain droplets falling
in the inky night...

Undo any sternum straps and loosen but do not remove your waist belt. Sternum straps are a possible choking hazard as the buoyancy of your pack can force them up towards your neck. The waist belt will help with stability if you fall into the water.

Sternum straps as a choking hazard...

Avoid wearing loose clothing that could gather weight from the water. Remove it and stow it until you reach the other side. I'm thinking about fleece trousers and wet weather pants here.

Always wear your footwear. Rivers can be slippery and they also conceal sharp rocks etc. on their beds. I know you like dry boots but safety comes first.

Wet feet but safely across the river!

Don't skip from stone to stone or walk along logs. You are far more likely to end up in the river doing this and may injure yourself. I have seen numerous people take a full immersion bath just because they wanted to keep their boots dry.

Bad crossing technique: don't do this...

...don't do this...

...and never do this!

Use a plastic pack liner or water proof dry bag to keep your pack contents dry. Make sure you will still have warm, dry clothing and a dry sleeping bag at the end of the day. A change of warm clothing can be the difference between safety and hypothermia so keep those spare clothes dry.

The standard MSC style pack liner bag..$10 at most outdoor stores!

My pack showing my plastic pack liner exposed!

What if I fall mid stream?

Good question.

Every tramper is going to experience the buttock clenching shock of going adrift in a river at some time, I certainly have.

In 1988 I was part of an Army group crossing a swollen river in the Kaimaniwa Mountains. Three of us got swept downstream for about half a kilometre. I am not ashamed to say it frightened the be-jesus out of me as I am not a good swimmer at the best of times. We were lucky and all of us managed to reach the river banks but not everyone has such luck.

The fact that experienced senior NCO's thought it was a good idea to cross a swollen river is a separate matter....

The remote Waipakihi River...the river I nearly drowned in!!!

If you do fall use your packs natural buoyancy to keep you afloat. Get onto your back, face downstream and use you arms in a sculling motion to work your way to the river side.

Sculling to safety after a river mishap, photo from MSC website

Once there carefully remove your pack and slowly work both it and yourself up the bank to safety.

Stabilise a pack with no waist belt

If you do not have a waist belt or it is undone use the older MSC advice on stabilising a pack as it is equally effective:

Pushing straps to stabilise pack

If wearing a belt-less pack you need to:

• Lean back on your pack and face downstream
• Push down on the bottom of your pack straps to keep your pack on your back
• Keep your legs in a running position and head diagonally towards the bank
• Remove pack only if you lose control of it/or it pushes you under. In that case grasp it to your chest and use it as a pack float instead.

Once you are safely out of the water you need to get dry and warm as quickly as possible. Hypothermia is a real risk after a total immersion on even the sunniest, warm day. If required you should stop, erect some shelter, get into your sleeping bag and get some warm food/drinks into you. If you are part of a group you can also light a fire to warm you and dry out clothing.

At a minimum change into dry clothes and have a hot drink.

Regrouping and drying off after river crossing

For more information on river crossing technique see the MSC website.

Practice makes perfect, but....!

Even with mastery of crossing methods and a lifetime of experience people still have problems from time to time. Learning about rivers and how to cross them really is a lifelong learning experience. Hey, I have been tramping for over 25 years and I am still learning new things every time I cross a river.

Contemplating my 7th crossing of  a very low Waimakiriri River at Klondyke Corner, 2018

The best advice I can give you is to take a NOOA, NOLS or another organised river safety course. These will teach you the basic skills you need to survive in New Zealand rivers. This knowledge will be enhanced with the experience you gain every time you cross another body of water.

Be safe out there!

Tramping Skills: Building a fire...

Holy blazes.... fire starting, a vital outdoor skill!

The ability to build and light a fire when required is still a vital piece of tramping knowledge. Although the use of the fire as a cooking method has waned, fires built for heating, drying and survival purposes still have a place in the outdoors. 

Blazing fire in Lakehead Hut on a cold rainy day

I have no pretensions as an expert on the subject, what follows are just a few tips I have picked up along the way.

Do I REALLY need a fire?

 The very first question you need to ask yourself is 'Do I really need to light a fire'?

Most people will say yes, but actually for much of the year a fire is total overkill. Rather than lighting a fire why don't you put some more clothes on?

Jon says...try an insulating layer before lighting a fire!

 If you are sitting in a hut and it is 30 degrees outside it would be madness to start a fire. You may laugh but this has happened to me a couple of times. One blistering hot summer afternoon I arrived at Boyle Flat Hut where two Swiss hikers had the fire going. The hut was hot...like 45 degrees hot! They had all the windows open because it was too damn hot in the hut to sit inside.

Blazing hot 30 degree day on the St James- not a good day for a fire!

I suggested politely but firmly that possibly that wasn't an awesome idea...it took 6 hours for the hut to cool down!


Again if you are camping and it is raining it would also be mad to start a fire. You are going to find it hard to find dry wood, the rain will dampen your fire and you would be sitting outside getting warm on your front and wet everywhere else.

Cooking over fire in the rain...not my idea of fun.

You need to pick if and when you are going to light a fire carefully.

When is a fire appropriate?

Good question. Here are some things to consider when deciding if a fire is suitable:

A more appropriate way to heat water at lunch- a gas canister stove!

• How long is your stop? In the old days trampers made a fire every time they stopped for a brew, you can still do this but is it necessary.
• Wood supply: is there any wood available? Often the answer will be no, especially around the well used non serviced huts and above the bush-line.
• Temperature: Do you REALLY need a fire if it is 30 degrees Celsius?
• Is there a fire ban in place? This is a lot more common now with climate change.
• Is a small fire more appropriate than a large one? You may only need a small fire to heat the newer 'insulated to death' DOC huts. Don't go overboard and try to melt the window glass...

 

 Wood selection for fire making

  So, you have decided a fire is needed and now you are going to build one. You will need wood, so what kind works best and how much do you need.

Driftwood makes excellent fuel for a fire...if dry!

The quick answer is any wood that is dry- unfortunately this is often hard to locate. Look for standing dry wood, or wood which has been kept dry in a wood shed (at most DOC huts), under a large bush or over hang. Driftwood along shorelines and riverbanks is also good provided it is dry.

Do not bother with rotten wood, it will never burn even if it is bone dry. Bark/cones are also difficult to light- keep them for when the fire is really blazing.

Wet, rotten wood will not burn...

Wood types that burn well are soft like pine, beech, manuka/kanuka etc. Native hardwood's such as Rimu, Totara and Matai are hard to light but will burn for a long time, keep them for when the fire is roaring.

You need three types of fuel for a fire:

Tinder: Tinder provides the fire-starter for your blaze- it might be paper, dry grass, dry pine needles, frayed twine, steel wool, birds nests or dry papery tree bark. I like native Fuschia bark, it is a light paper like bark that will take a flame well.

A tinder bundle made of dried grass

Kindling: Think finger sized or smaller;  sticks, branches or slices cut from a larger log. I usually use a mixture of sticks and slices. If the sticks have thick bark try to slice them in half so they catch fire better as bark is notoriously difficult to light.

Cutting logs into kindling, Lakehead Hut

Logs/splits: These will range in size from arm thick to thigh thick depending on the type of fire. All logs work better if they are split i.e. cut into several slices. Wood with edges burns better than full round logs due to the bark. If the fire is in a hut make sure the splits are short enough to fit into the wood burner or fireplace.

 

Some log splits for the wood box in John Tait Hut, Nelso Lakes NP

Tools of the trade

Once you have your wood sorted you need some tools to break it into manageable pieces.

Your first tool is yourself, break small branches in your hand, over the knee or around a tree. Slightly larger versions can be leaned against a rock and broken in half with your feet. Breaking wood this way is as old as humanity, we have used this method for the last 100 thousand years.

Firewood: this level of commitment is not required...

Other tools you will use are axes, saws and knives. If you are in a DOC hut there will probably be either an axe or a saw for firewood preparation. It is easier to saw any wood into manageable logs and then split them with the axe- chopping through a log is an exercise in frustration!

Tools of the trade: Axe and saw

If you are camping you will need to make due with what you can find, break by hand or use whatever  knife you carry. If you are a machete, parang or kukri carrier you are set...they are all basically small axes.  If like me you only carry a Swiss army knife then hand broken wood is your only option.

The Kukri I carried in the Army- awesome knife but bloody heavy!

If you have a suitable knife, grab a piece of hard wood and use it as a hammer to drive your knife through thinner pieces of wood.

Using a knife and a log to split wood, photo Paul Kirtley

Regardless of the tool always be safety concious- take care using any sharp blade, don't let minors cut wood, wear boots when chopping and try to get home without losing a finger, hand or limb....

Types of fires

 There are many different formations you can use when you first start a fire, the most common are the teepee, log cabin and upside down pyramid. All of these use the same basic premise; a structure is built around and above the tinder. Once the blaze is going well the larger splits will collapse forming a good bed of coals for large pieces of wood.

Some different types of fire formation

Another type is the star fire. The star fire formation is a good choice for a slow burning fire in areas with little wood or where only larger logs are available.

Classic star pattern fire set up

Once the fire is burning the various logs are slowly feed into the centre maintaining the flame.

Building an outdoor fire

The skills used building a fire indoors or outdoors are very similar, you use the same process in both cases.

A scratch camping spot with fire circle near Mt Richardson, Canterbury

When building an outdoor fire you need to follow these steps;

• Locate a site for your fire. When using 'leave no trace' methods this should be in an existing fire circle, or on a hard impermeable surface such as rock, compacted sand or compacted soil
• Gather your wood: you need tinder, kindling and fuel wood. Make sure you have more than enough wood to maintain the fire until it is going well
• Place a bunch of tinder in the middle of your camp-fire site, if the ground is damp construct a wood platform for the tinder to rest on using larger kindling
• Form an initial teepee of small kindling around your tinder regardless of the form of fire you are building
• Add kindling to the pile, working up to pencil sized pieces
• Create a larger teepee/log cabin/upside down pyramid around and above your kindling teepee using fuel wood,
• Light your fire. If you have some type of fire starter (rubber tube/candle stub/soaked cotton waste) this is when you should use it.

Different types of firewood ready for use

Lighting a classic 'pyramid' fire outdoors...note the hard rocky ground

A small campfire at the Ryde Falls camp-site, November 2012

Make sure that you:

• Conserve wood- only use what you need, when you need it- don't waste wood just because it is there. Leave some for the people coming after you.
• Keep fires small, they use less fuel and usually do the job perfectly adequately.
• Don't use smooth river stones in a fire circle- they may explode as they heat up and expand.
• Don't light a fire on humus (the dry, crumbly soil you find on a forest floor) as it can smoulder and eventually catch fire long after you are gone. 
• Watch your fire, never leave it unattended in case it gets out of control and starts a larger fire. 
• Make sure it is fully out before departing: use the douse, crush and mix method. Put the fire out with water/soil/sand then crush the embers with your feet. Mix it around with a stick to make sure all embers are out. Repeat until fully doused. 

How to ensure a fire is fully out

Building a fire in a hut

Almost all DOC huts will have a heat source of some sort, generally these will be open fires, pot belly stoves or wood burners. A few of the Great Walk huts have gas heaters, usually only during the Summer season.

The classic 'corker cooker' wood burner, Magdalen Hut

In general terms you need the same resources for a hut fire as a camp fire: tinder, kindling and wood. If you are lucky (for instance I was at the hut before you) you will arrive to find a supply of all three ready and waiting. If you are unlucky you will need to gather your own.

Fire prep done and wood laid in for when needed

Your first port of call should be the hut woodshed; most serviced and standard huts will have one, wither there is any wood in them is a different matter. If there is no wood shed or it is empty start foraging in the bush for your wood. Remember dry is better than damp..look for standing dry or wood that has been protected from the wet in some fashion. 

Partially full wood shed at Nina Hut, Lewis Pas Scenic Reserve

Look at that beauty: a full wood shed at John Tait Hut, Nelso Lakes NP

Construct your wood burner fire as you would for a camp fire. Use either a tee pee, pyramid or log cabin. The tinder goes in the centre with small kindling stacked around and over it.  Have a supply of larger pieces of wood on hand for when the fire takes. Once you have a base of coals in the fire box you can start to add these larger logs as they need intense heat to ignite.

Basic framework for your fire- log cabin type

Ready to go: tinder and kindling added...note the air regulator

There is an airflow control on most DOC wood burners...pushing it to the right increases the air flow while pushing it to the left decreases it. I normally start at the middle position and adjust it once the wood is well aflame. I find leaving the door open about 1 cm helps when initially starting the fire. 

Shut the door once the fire is burning well...don't burn down the hut.

It need not be perfect...my slightly shambolic pyramid...it still worked!

Supply of wood ready for when fire requires it...

Some huts will also supply coal for the hut fireplace. I'm constantly surprised by the number of people who have never used coal before, when I was young everyone used it on their open fires so everyone knew how to use it.

A bag of coal in fire wood shed, Lake Daniels Hut

To use coal, first build a fire as described with wood. Once you have a nice bed of hot embers evenly spread a small shovel full of coal over the top. Take it easy with that shovel though, too much coal and you will smother your fire.

Watch the coal dust as it can be explosive in the right conditions...dont chuck it into the fire, gently place it.

 

Coal being used in an open fireplace

I know there are environmental issues with using coal, but it is much more efficient that burning wood. Coal will give you a long, slow and even burn and it puts out a lot more heat than wood so if it is available use it.

What to do once the fight is burning

 So, what do you do once the fire is actually burning, or course you add more wood to it but do so SLOWLY!

Larger splits being added to a well blazing fire...

Jamming 14 logs into a fire box just because you can see some flames is a recipe for killing any fire. Add progressively larger splits of wood until you have a hot bed of embers, this is when you can add those big chunks of wood to the flames. This applies to hut fires and open fires. 

If the fire goes out...start again from scratch. Even I have had to restart fires a couple of times. Unfortunately, the fire god 'Burnslikehellum' likes to play jolly japes on you...dont fret just kick him where it hurts.

 Practice makes perfect

It is really important to practice your fire construction skills, even if you don't actually light the fire. Take the opportunity when you go for a tramp to locate and prepare fire making materials. Chop wood at huts, and split some for kindling- you are practising your skills and making someone else's visit easier.

In the firebox and ready to go, Mid Robinson Hut

 Keep an eye out for good tinder, I collect Fuschia bark every time I see one of these trees as they make excellent tinder. I have a couple of kilos of it at home drying out for future use.I always carry a handful of it in a tied off plastic bag as an emergency back up.

Paper like bark of the native Fuschia Tree...great tinder!

Final thoughts on fire making

When I am tramping in the summer months (when fires are less of a necessity) I always take the opportunity to cut & gather wood when I get to a hut. Cut some kindling and gather dry branches, put these in the woodshed, under the veranda or under the hut if possible so they can dry.

Best way to stack ready use wood- cross hatch stack- it dries faster

 I wont need it but I'm providing for leaner times when dry wood is not so easy to locate. If you pass a likely looking log close to a hut by all means carry it with you, chop it up and put it in the wood shed. Obviously don't carry it for 5 kilometres just in case...that would be mad.

One other point- all of these skills are covered in a basic bushcraft course run by climbing/tramping clubs and safety organisations. If you want to get some fire making skills sign up for one of these courses and learn how to do it from an expert.

Boiling the billy on a outdoor fire...

Be safety conscious- don't leave a fire un-attended and for pity's sake don't touch a wood burner once it is going. Those bastids get hot...most of us will have seen the burnt on hand/finger prints on a woodburner chimney (the West Sabine Hut woodburner is one example...).

Cheers!